In this review I deacetylate what we know so far about chitin digestion and metabolism, the medicinal benefits of chitin and its derivative chitosan, and how, and if, this applies to consuming and processing medicinal and edible fungi.
Fungal Chitin and the Human Body
Chitin is structural
Chitin is the main structural component of fungal cell walls, exoskeletons of arthropods and crustacean shells. In fungi, chitin is covalently linked with glucans and gives shape to the mushrooms we know and love. It is a very hard substance, and is why (most) mushrooms don’t turn to mush when they are cooked. Some fungi have more chitin than others, and different parts of the mushroom have different amounts of chitin - in many mushroom species the pileus (cap) has more chitin than the stipe (stem) (1,2,3).
Chitin-degrading enzymes
The understanding of chitin digestion in humans has evolved significantly in the last 20 years. While it was once assumed that we could not digest chitin, around 20 years ago research revealed the presence of acidic mammalian chitinase (AMCase), an enzyme capable of chitin digestion in the stomach. Shortly prior to this, chitotriosidase (CHIT1), an enzyme produced by activated macrophages, was also identified. Note that AMCase is not exclusive to gastric juices - other immune cells also produce this enzyme.
Due to variations in enzyme production among individuals, the ability to digest and degrade chitin is not consistent across the population; for example, a study of 25 Italian men found that 20% lacked AMCase in their gastric juices (4). It's hypothesized that cultures with higher chitin consumption and exposure may produce more AMCase, but this hypothesis lacks direct evidence. However, mouse studies indicate that chitin consumption increases AMCase production, suggesting a response to dietary chitin. Given that mice generally produce significantly more AMCase than humans, the direct applicability of these findings to humans is uncertain (5).
Let’s assume that at least 80% of people make AMCase. What happens, then, after chitin is ingested - and is it more than just an insoluble dietary fiber?
Chitin digestion
What we know so far is that after chitin consumption there is an interplay between the immune system and digestive juices.
Once chitin is consumed, for example in the form of sautéed shiitake mushrooms, it enters the stomach and the stomach distends. This distention triggers an innate immune response and the release of digestive juices. Keep in mind that stomach acid and digestive juices are not just meant for digesting food, but pathogens as well, so this is actually a primary defense against chitin-containing pathogens: parasites, dust mites, and fungi. AMCase, an enzyme released by chief cells in response to chitin consumption, breaks down chitin into chitosan, a polymer of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine. For context, in regular feeding conditions chief cells also secrete the digestive enzymes pepsinogen and gastric lipase (5).
Similar to other dietary fibers, chitin is fermented by intestinal bacteria in the colon, but unlike other fibers it is not dependent on this process for degradation; AMCase is not microbe-made, but human-made - if you believe your self is separate from your microbiome (5).
Variations in acidic mammalian chitinase activity
There are a few factors that may impact the amount of AMCase present and the ability to digest chitin and chitin-containing pathogens. In addition to genetic variations that cause more or less AMCase production, long term use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) has been shown to decrease the number of chief cells in the stomach and is likely implicated in lower AMCase production. Consequently, people taking PPIs are likely to face challenges in digesting dietary chitin and may have weakened defenses against parasites and other chitin-containing pathogens. Similar difficulties may be experienced by individuals with atrophic gastritis and Helicobacter pylori infection (5,6).
Implications of undigested chitin
As previously noted, not all digestive systems are created equal. Some people do not have significant amounts of AMCase, and about 10% of the American population are on some flavor of acid blocker which may impact digestion of chitin (7). Even for those who do make AMCase, production is limited, and there will inevitably be significant amounts of chitin that pass through the stomach undigested.
Nutrient absorption
There is a small risk that large amounts of undigested chitin could inhibit the absorption of other nutrients. However, this is less concerning as chitin is an insoluble fiber, and studies show that high fiber diets primarily impact mineral absorption, like calcium, when the fiber is soluble (8). Research on rainbow trout further illustrates this, finding that 3% chitin supplementation had no effect on nutrient absorption, while 4.5% did (9). Consequently, it is improbable that the chitin intake from typical mushroom consumption would hinder nutrient absorption, though it remains a theoretical possibility in an extremely mushroom-heavy diet.
Gastrointestinal discomfort
Gastrointestinal discomfort would be a more appropriate concern from undigested chitin, with typical symptoms including bloating, gas and other digestive discomfort. It is likely that people with SIBAFO (small intestinal bacterial/archaea/fungal overgrowth) would be most sensitive here, but it may affect other populations, like those with low stomach acid as mentioned previously.
Intestinal blockages
There are a few (rare) cases of mushroom-induced bezoar, a type of small bowel obstruction caused by indigestible materials. This is more of a concern if you are just swallowing whole mushrooms and not chewing well, and the few cases that have been reported were seen with shiitake mushrooms that were swallowed whole or not chewed well due to the consumer having poor dentition (10,11).
Asthma
Genetic mutations in the CHIA gene that encodes AMCase have been linked with asthma, suggesting that humans who do not make AMCase or who make less of it may be more likely to develop asthma from chitin exposure (12).
Benefits of undigested Chitin
Undigested chitin is a significant source of prebiotic material, and once it reaches the colon it is fermented by gut bacteria and can increase proliferation of beneficial bacteria and the production of short chain fatty acids. Additionally, mice fed chitin but lacking AMCase exhibited a stronger immune response, gained the least weight, and had the least body fat compared to mice capable of chitin degradation, suggesting there may be certain metabolic benefits to a lack of chitin degradation (5).
Chitin degradation beyond the stomach
The defense against chitin-containing pathogens and the immune response to dietary chitin extends beyond the stomach. Even if chief cells don’t produce AMCase in the stomach, it is likely that other innate immune cells in the body such as monocytes, natural killer (NK) cells and lung epithelial cells do. However, if low gastric AMCase is caused by a genetic mutation, then other cells may also lack this enzyme, whereas if it’s caused by PPIs or gastritis, other immune cells will likely still produce AMCase. Additionally, CHIT1, another chitin-degrading enzyme produced by activated macrophages and various epithelial cells, is present in most individuals (13).
Chitotriosidase: the other active chitinase enzyme
Pathogen defense
Chitotriosidase (CHIT1), another active chitin-degrading enzyme, is primarily produced by activated macrophages, which are key components of the innate immune system (13). CHIT1 plays a significant role in both innate and adaptive immune responses against chitin-containing pathogens, including fungi, insects, and parasites.
Similar to AMCase, CHIT1's primary function is to degrade chitin into smaller fragments of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. These fragments are then sensed by immune receptors and trigger an immune response (14). Also similar to AMCase, not everyone makes CHIT1, and approximately 6% of the population has a CHIT1 deficiency (15).
CHIT1 as a biomarker in inflammatory disease
In the context of fungal infections CHIT1 activity is upregulated, contributing to the host's defense against fungal pathogens. However, CHIT1's role in the immune system is not limited to antifungal defense. It has also been implicated in various other immune-related processes, including inflammation, neurodegenerative disease, atherosclerosis and tissue damage.
Liver, brain, and vascular disease
For example, CHIT1 expression in fibrotic liver tissues was significantly correlated with the extent of liver fibrosis, and CHIT1 may be used as an early biomarker for disease progression in multiple sclerosis. CHIT1 is also elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's disease patients, and levels may be a marker for Alzheimer’s disease progression and disability.
Microglial cells (the macrophages of the brain) increase production of CHIT1 in response to inflammation or injury. In addition to increased presence in neurodegenerative disease, CHIT1 levels are elevated (up to 55 fold) in patients with atherosclerosis (hardened arteries) and there is an association between CHIT1 expression and lipid-laden macrophages inside atherosclerotic vessel walls (16).
Gaucher disease
The most significant disease that has been utilizing CHIT1 as a diagnostic and therapeutic biomarker in Gaucher disease, a rare genetic disorder caused by a deficiency in the enzyme glucocerebrosidase, which leads to the accumulation of lipids in various organs, particularly the spleen, liver, and bone marrow(17).
Not only is there an association between tissue damage and elevated CHIT1, but CHIT1 could actually be contributing to tissue damage via increased production of fibroblasts, leading to increased scar tissue (18).
CHIT1 expressed in these disease processes may have little to do with the immune response elicited after consuming chitin-rich mushrooms, but its significance as a current and future biomarker in disease cannot be ignored.
Health benefits of chitin and chitosan
Consuming chitin-rich foods may lead to immune-modulation and desensitization, potentially preventing or modulating certain diseases through these pathways. While direct evidence regarding CHIT1's response to mushroom consumption is lacking, understanding chitin-degrading enzymes is crucial for illuminating the role of mushrooms in immune modulation.
The medicinal benefits of chitin and chitosan span many organ systems and disease processes. We have explored the mechanisms at play in chitin digestion and metabolism, and it is finally time to discuss the physiological impacts in immune modulation, lipid metabolism, gut health, wound healing, and cancer.
Immune modulation
Impact on cytokine production
Chitin and chitosan are recognised by the immune system as pattern associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), primarily dectin-1 and TLR-2 on innate immune cells, and stimulate production of the cytokines IL-17 and TNF-a. IL-17 plays an important role in tissue repair, immune surveillance, microbial protection, and in the development of autoimmune disease, cancer and asthma. TNF-a is involved in inflammation, tissue repair and apoptosis (cell death). In one study exploring the impact of chitosan on inflammation in mice subjected to heat stress, there was significant reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10, TNF-a and IL-6 compared to the placebo group, indicating an immune-modulating effect (19).
Impact on allergic responses
Chitin also promotes recruitment of eosinophils, white blood cells that increase in response to allergy or parasitic infection. While there is some concern that chitin can contribute to allergic inflammation, some studies have revealed that it may actually help to de-sensitize allergic individuals and modulate the allergic response. Studies in mice with peanut allergies showed that adding chitin and chitosan to their food pellets significantly reduced anaphylaxis and peanut IgE levels upon exposure to peanuts (20). The size of the chitin particle seems to be of great importance – medium-sized chitin particles may cause allergic responses, while smaller particles may reduce it (21). Chitin particle size is largely dependent on the activity of chitin degrading enzymes, and the variability of enzyme activity in the population can explain why people who have more or less gastric AMCase and CHIT1 may respond differently to mushrooms.
These findings are in line with the hygiene hypothesis, which suggests that reduced exposure to microbes and parasites in early childhood may increase the risk of allergy. This hypothesis would suggest that exposure to chitin in the environment from dust mites and fungi may help to “train” the immune system and prevent allergic sensitization (22).
Certain medicinal mushrooms, notably reishi and chaga, are known to modulate allergic responses. This effect appears to be largely mediated by lanostane triterpene glycosides, which support mast cell stabilization and balance TH1/TH2 immune responses (23). Because these mushrooms are too woody to eat, their chitin is usually not consumed unless they are processed into a 1:1 powdered extract or a non-extracted powder. It's intriguing to consider whether people with allergies might derive more benefits from a 1:1 powdered extract than a liquid extract of these mushrooms, potentially due to the presence of chitin.
Contrasting chitin to fungal beta-glucans
Similar to fungal beta-glucans, chitin and chitosan are PAMPs that bind to PRRs on macrophages and active immune cells, engage with immune cells, and influence cytokine production and modulate immune responses (24).
For comparison, fungal beta-glucans activate an innate immune response via natural killer cells, but also activate an adaptive immune response, enhancing the activity of T cells, increasing systemic resistance to infections and improving immune surveillance against cancer cells (25).
Considering these mechanisms of action, it is possible that the long-term immune benefits from consuming mushrooms are due to the hormetic effect of low-grade immune stress via chitin and glucan exposure leading to desensitization and a more robust immune system over time.
Metabolic Benefits
Chitosan binds to dietary fats and cholesterol in the digestive tract, reducing cholesterol absorption and promoting its excretion, and the ability of chitin to bind fats and promote satiety also suggests it may support weight loss. While chitosan will not be as effective as a GLP-1 agonist like Ozempic (semaglutide), if weight loss is the objective, increasing consumption of protein and chitin-rich mushrooms would likely be beneficial.
Chitosan can also regulate lipid metabolism by increasing low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors on the liver, and similar to other fibers, binds bile acids and increases excretion in the feces (26,27). Animal studies have consistently shown lipid-lowering effects, and human clinical trials have also yielded promising results. However, it is important to note that these studies used pure chitosan at doses up to 3,200mg, which may have different effects in the stomach compared to consuming chitin-rich mushrooms (19).
Gut health
Like fungal beta-glucans, chitin and chitosan function as prebiotics, promoting the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacilli and consequently short chain fatty acid production. Chitosan also supports intestinal barrier integrity and modulates mucous production, suggesting potential for treating intestinal permeability (28). A 2022 randomized clinical trial found that 4.5g/day of chitin-glucan supplementation improved postprandial metabolism and altered microbiota in individuals with cardiometabolic risk (29). Given these combined benefits of glucan and chitin, consuming a food that contains both glucan and chitin, like mushrooms, would also likely be beneficial.
Wound healing
Chitin and chitosan are utilized in wound healing technologies to accelerate healing and reduce scarring. These biocompatible, biodegradable, hemostatic, antimicrobial, and adsorbent compounds possess key properties for effective wound care (30). Numerous in vivo animal studies have demonstrated the benefits of chitin and chitosan, including stable collagen synthesis, faster wound healing rates, reduced wound size, and inflammation modulation. Furthermore, chitin and chitosan can remove excess exudate from a wound, while maintaining a moist environment conducive to healing (19).
Cancer treatment and drug delivery
There is potential for chitin and chitosan to be used in cancer treatment as both a vehicle for delivering cancer drugs to a specific site and via an antiproliferative effect by reducing the viability of cancer cells (31, 32). In vivo animal studies and in vitro studies have demonstrated that chitosan has an anti-tumor effect through enhancing cytotoxic T cells in addition to direct anti-tumor activity by inducing apoptosis (19).
Effect of Cooking Mushrooms on the Bioavailability of Chitin and Other Medicinal Compounds
Bioavailability refers to the extent to which a substance is absorbed into the bloodstream. Generally, chitin is not bioavailable, and chitosan has minimal bioavailability. Instead, the benefits of chitin stem from its interaction with immune cells, lipids, and bacteria within the intestinal tract. The question remains, then: is it important to cook mushrooms, and if so, why?
Chitin remains intact during typical home cooking methods. To break down chitin using heat, mushrooms would need to be cooked at 400 degrees Celsius, which would also destroy most of the nutrients and medicinal compounds, making this approach unadvisable (33). Furthermore, chitin is not extracted in water or alcohol and therefore will not be present in liquid mushroom extracts.
While chitin's structure is unaffected by cooking, different cooking methods influence the bioavailability of other nutrients and therapeutic constituents in mushrooms. Heating enhances the bioavailability of beneficial compounds such as beta-glucans, triterpenes, and ergothioneine, though frying is generally harmful to these therapeutic compounds and should be avoided. A gentle sauté with butter or other fats appears to be the best approach for maximizing nutritional benefits, minimizing digestive discomfort, and achieving optimal flavor (34, 35, 36).
In addition to improving bioavailability of certain compounds, cooking mushrooms can also destroy certain heat-sensitive toxins present in some raw mushrooms. For example, consuming raw shiitake mushrooms has been linked to shiitake dermatitis, and morel mushrooms contain a heat-sensitive toxin which can cause severe digestive symptoms and even death (37,38). Just because most humans produce enzymes that digest chitin does not mean mushrooms should be consumed raw.
Conclusion
Understanding the processes of chitin digestion and degradation in the human body is imperative to understanding how medicinal and edible mushrooms benefit human health. Chitin digestion and metabolism are intricate processes involving the enzymes AMCase and CHIT1. The presence of these enzymes varies among individuals due to genetic mutations and differing levels of dietary chitin exposure, leading to diverse responses to chitin. While the enzymes predominantly serve as a primary defense mechanism against chitin-containing pathogens, the implications of CHIT1 in inflammatory diseases are substantial and warrant further investigation as a potential biomarker in those diseases.
Chitin and chitosan demonstrate significant therapeutic potential in immune modulation, wound care, digestive health, metabolic health, and cancer therapy. To obtain the benefits of chitin, consuming mushrooms as food, powder, or a 1:1 powdered extract is recommended since chitin is not present in mushroom teas or tinctures. For the optimal benefits from woody medicinal mushrooms, opt for 1:1 powdered extracts in most cases - while cooking does not break down chitin, it enhances the bioavailability of other medicinal compounds and is generally recommended.
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